Australia's Vietnam War: 50 Years On

In many ways 1962 was just another prosperous year in Australia. Popular music stations and record stores were belting out Roy Orbison's Working for the Man (#1) while Australia's own Lucky Starr was dazzling listeners with his rapid-fire lyric hit I've Been Everywhere (#14). People were getting excited about the British Empire and Commonwealth Games to be held in Perth in November/December; Australian tennis icons Rod Laver and Margaret Court were cementing their future legend status on courts across the world, and Australia's population of some 10.7 million was enjoying the prosperity of the post Second World War boom years.

But 1962 was a troublesome and dangerous year for the world. The Cold War, predominately between the Soviet Union and the United States, was in full flight and came to an almost catastrophic head in October when the Soviets stationed nuclear missiles in Cuba – less than 200kms from mainland America. The 13-day Cuban Missile Crisis took the world to the brink of a nuclear war and Australians were fully aware of the effects it could have. Just two years earlier in 1959 the Hollywood blockbuster On the Beach, a post-apocalyptic film set in 1964 Australia and staring Hollywood legend Gregory Peck, sees deadly radioactive fallout from nuclear war slowly consume the globe – with Australia one of the last to succumb – but it does succumb. It was a terrifying prospect.

It was the Cold War, and an ever-pressing concern about the expansion of Communism in Asia (and Europe), that was a driving force in Australia's first commitment to the Vietnam conflict. In 1961 then Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev promised support for "wars of national liberation" throughout the world. This promise encouraged communists in North Vietnam to escalate their ongoing armed struggle to unify Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh. South Vietnam pleaded for help from the US and its allies to stem the invading communists. Australia committed 30 highly skilled military advisors (The Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV)) to work alongside the South Vietnamese.

AATTV was increased to 73 in September 1964, and then to 112 in June 1965. Its strength peaked in 1970 when 217 advisors were in place. From early 1971, as part of Australia's decision to reduce its commitment to the war, the size of the Team was gradually reduced before it was fully withdrawn in December 1972.

Teenagers have also found a new passion. Surfing is growing in Australia and it's got its own unique surf sound through bands like the Chantays and the Atlantics, and a new dance craze dance, 'The Stomp' is seen as rebellious by many conservative older Australians who try to ban it.

Although the world is still gripped in the cold war, and the fear of communism's spread seen as a global threat, signs of optimism emerge. After the Cuban missile affair of 1962, which brought the world dangerously close to nuclear war, U.S. President, John F Kennedy, and Soviet Premier, Nikita Khrushchev, agree in June to establish a hot line to use in situations such as the Cuba crisis. Just two months later, on 5 August, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union sign the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.

But on 22 November 1963 any feeling of hope is shattered when the world is rocked by the assassination of President Kennedy in Dallas Texas.

Just weeks earlier, on 1 November, South Vietnam's corrupt President Ngo Dinh Diem and his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu were assassinated by a group of South Vietnamese generals in a military coup the United States had known about and which it had chosen to not prevent. Instead of the hoped-for stability in South Vietnam with the change leadership, the country further fractured, and the North Vietnamese advance was increasing without great resistance.

After President Kennedy's assassination Lyndon B. Johnson took over as U.S. President and announced the U.S. would continue supporting South Vietnam in its war against communism. Before the year is out some 15,000 U.S. military advisors will be serving in Vietnam.

Australia's own small team of 30 military advisers had suffered its first casualty that June when Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV) advisor, Sergeant William Hacking, is killed after his weapon accidentally discharges after being caught in vegetation. Members of AATTV unit continue to support South Vietnamese but their role is changing. By late '63 members of the team were redeployed into combat advisory roles, with two officers and eight NCOs working with Special Forces teams involved in counter-insurgency operations by February 1964.

At home the 30 November Federal election returns the Liberal Party and Prime Minister Robert Menzies to office. Significantly, Indigenous Australians in Western Australia, Queensland and the Northern Territory could vote in the federal election on the same basis as other electors for the first time. Indigenous voting rights in other states had been in place since 1949. Many believed the assassination of Kennedy, and the fear of an unstable world, was a key factor in the return of the government.

29 January saw the Royal Australian Air Force take delivery of its first two Mirage fighter jets. The Dassault Mirage III was a French single-seat, single-engine fighter jet introduced in the early 1960s. The aircraft had a maximum speed of Mach 2.2 and could reach a height of 17,000 meters. This was a significant development for the Air Force, as the Mirage was a highly advanced and capable fighter aircraft.

10 February, the Melbourne–Voyager collision was tragic when two ships, HMAS Melbourne and HMAS Voyager, collided off New South Wales, Australia. The crash resulted in the sinking of Voyager and the loss of 82 lives. HMAS Melbourne was an aircraft carrier, while HMAS Voyager was a destroyer. The two ships were conducting exercises when the collision occurred. The impact cut the Voyager in half, and she sank within minutes, while Melbourne suffered minor damage. The incident was the subject of a Royal Commission, which found that a series of errors and miscommunications on both ships caused the collision. The Commission also identified a need for proper training and communication procedures as contributing factors.

15 March, the Communist Party of Australia (Marxist-Leninist) was founded as a Maoist organisation. The party emerged due to a divide within the Communist Party of Australia during the Sino-Soviet split. It was initially called the Communist Party of Australia (Marxist) but later changed its name to the Communist Party of Australia (Marxist-Leninist) in 1965.

The widespread practice of surfing was on the rise as an increasing number of youthful individuals began to engage in the activity, forging their distinct subculture. A gathering of 60,000 onlookers congregated on Manly beach on 17 May, where they witnessed Phyllis O'Donnell and Midget Farrelly make history by claiming the title of world surfing champions.

08 June, The Minister for Defence announced that the AAATV would be increased to 83 advisers with an expanded role. The team's rules of engagement expanded to include advisory duties on operations. This change meant advisors began accompanying ARVN units, Regional Force units, and Popular Force units on combat patrols. In effect, this meant that the advisors led the patrols, and naturally, it meant a significant increase in risk. 06 July, Australian Army Warrant Officer Class Two, Kevin Conway, becomes the first Australian to die due to enemy action in South Vietnam.

In 1964, The Beatles embarked on a world tour that included several countries, including Australia. The Beatles arrived in Australia on 11 June for their first-ever time. The time began with a concert at the Adelaide Town Hall on 12 June, followed by concerts in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, and Perth. Two hundred thousand people attended the Beatles' shows in Australia. The band was greeted by thousands of screaming fans at each of their Australian concerts, and their arrival in Adelaide was even declared a public holiday.

On 10 November, Robert Menzies announced the reintroduction of national service in Australia. This decision directly responded to the prevalent geopolitical turmoil to bolster the nation's troop numbers. Per the new policy, every male aged 20 must register for a birthdate lottery. The selected few were forced to commit to two years of full-time service, which could involve deployment abroad. Following this, these individuals would be committed to three years of service in the Army Reserve.

On 14 December 1964, The Prime Minister received a message from President Johnson that suggested that Australia provide more than just advisers. Johnson recommended that Australia send 200 additional combat advisers, minesweepers, LSTS salvage and repair ships, and hospital ships. The Australian Government responded to requests from the US President and South Vietnam Prime Minister with 200 additional advisers. The Menzies Government also offered to send ground troops to South Vietnam in support. This significant decision marked Australia's entry into the Vietnam War.

Amid all this change and uncertainty, one thing remained constant: Australia's love of the sport. In 1964, the country played host to the Olympic Games in Tokyo, Japan, and Australians once again embraced the event with enthusiasm and pride. Australia won 18 medals at the games, including four golds, six silvers, and eight bronzes. The success of Australian athletes at the Olympics helped reinforce the country's sense of national identity and pride. In addition, it demonstrated the power of sport to bring people together and inspire a sense of community spirit.

Australia faced various challenges and changes, both domestically and globally. Introducing the advanced Mirage fighter jets was a significant development for the Royal Australian Air Force. The tragic Melbourne-Voyager collision highlighted the need for better training and communication procedures. The founding of the Communist Party of Australia (Marxist-Leninist) and the rise of surfing as a subculture were also significant events. The Beatles' arrival and Australia's success at the Olympics reinforced the country's sense of national identity and pride. Ultimately, 1964 was a year of significant shifts and developments that shaped Australia's future in various ways.

IThe Rolling Stones toured Australia to start the year, captivating over 100,000 people with distinguished rock and roll tunes throughout January and February.

On 10 March, the initial draw of the birthday lottery took place, which was utilised to verify eligibility for National Service training. Most 20-year-old men were required to register. They could be drafted for up to 5 years of army service, including 2 years of full-time duty and 3 years of part-time commitment, with a possibility of combat in Vietnam. Birthdates were drawn from a secret ballot process involving marbles or wooden balls. Over 1,000 dates were drawn across 16 ballots from 10 March 1965 to 22 September 1972.

Prime Minister Robert Menzies, on 29 April, announced that an infantry battalion would be dispatched to South Vietnam. The battalion would be escorted by an armoured personnel carrier (APC) troop, a signals troop, and a logistic support company. 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1RAR) was chosen as the combat force and had an advance party on 24 May, leaving for South Vietnam to serve the US 173rd Airborne Division.

HMAS Sydney arrived in Vung Tau, South Vietnam, on 8 June with most Australian forces. After arriving, they were assigned to work with the US 173rd Airborne Brigade. They were also joined by a Royal New Zealand Army artillery battery. The battalion participated in numerous operations in Biên Hòa Province throughout the year, including meaningful engagements at Gang Toi, Operation Crimp, and Suoi Bong Trang.

On 30 June, the initial national service intake commenced their recruit training. After basic training, National Servicemen were assigned to various Corps, with most being assigned to Infantry, allowing the Army to expand the Royal Australian Regiment to nine Battalions. The Army was the only branch that used this selection process for deployment to Vietnam. In contrast, the Navy and Air Force used alternative methods. However, those eligible for conscription could opt for six years of service in the CMF instead of two years of National Service.

On 22 October, approximately 400 protestors disrupted traffic during peak hour in Sydney on Friday during a demonstration against the Vietnam War. The demonstration included members of various organisations, including the Waterside Workers' Federation, the Communist Party, the ALP youth body, women's organisations, and university students. The protest started peacefully but escalated, resulting in about 60 arrests, with concerns that a riot might break out. Some physical altercations occurred between police and protestors. Some people caught in the chaos attempted to remove protestors' banners and tore them up. Police called in uniformed and special officers to cordon off the streets with radio cars and police vans.

The Battle of Gang Toi on 8 November was the first major Australian-US Joint Operation and Australia's first significant engagement with the Viet Cong; 1RAR would suffer two fatalities; the bodies of Private Richard Parker and Private Peter Gillson could not be recovered until 2007, with both remains returning to Australia for burial.

Lastly, on 13 November, Australian Army Warrant Officer Class Two Kevin Arthur 'Dasher' Wheatley and Warrant Officer Class Two Ronald Swanton were attacked while in the Tra Bong valley. Despite being under heavy fire and Swanton being shot, Wheatley refused to leave his dying comrade. Instead, he pulled the pins from two grenades and waited for the enemy; both men were found deceased the following day. Wheatley's bravery was acknowledged, posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross on 15 December 1966, the General Service Medal, and the United States Silver Star presented to his son George on 14 December 2021.

1965 was a significant year in Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War. The National Service Act divided the nation, requiring many young men to register for the draft and potentially serve in Vietnam. The dispatch of 1RAR marked the beginning of Australia's combat involvement in the war, with the battalion participating in several significant operations throughout the year. The Battle of Gang Toi and the deaths of Private Parker and Private Gillson served as a stark reminder of the dangers of combat in Vietnam. The year also saw protests against the war, with the demonstration in Sydney resulting in several arrests and physical altercations. Overall, 1965 marked a turning point in Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War, with significant consequences for the nation and its people.

On 14 February, practical and economic considerations drove the transition from the old Australian pound; decimalisation also allowed Australia to demonstrate its growing confidence and progressive outlook.

After a remarkable 38-year career as an elected representative, Robert Menzies decided to step down from Parliament on 17 February. Harold Holt would succeed him as the new Prime Minister. Menzies' farewell press conference was the first broadcast live across Australia.

On 20 February, the Rolling Stones arrived in Australia for their second tour. Despite the rain, approximately 150 fans waited overnight at Kingsford Smith Airport to welcome them. At their news conference in Sydney, the Stones impressed even the most cynical journalist with their intelligence and engagement.

On 6 March, Harold Holt announced that the Australian military's commitment to the Vietnam War would increase to a 4350-man task force and include conscripts. The 1st Australian Task Force (1ATF) consisted of two infantry battalions, a Special Air Service squadron, combat and support logistic units, and eight RAAF Iroquois helicopters (9 SQN). This marked the first instance of national service members deployed to South Vietnam. The Federal government's announcement increased Australia's commitment to the Vietnam War to 4,500.

On 13 April, Bob Dylan started his first Australian tour at Sydney Stadium. Dylan divided his concert into an acoustic and electric set. The audience was thrilled with his performance, and he left them yearning for more.

On 24 May, the 5th Battalion, The Royal Australian Regiment (5 RAR), utilising helicopters from the 1st Australian Task Force (1ATF) concentration area stationed at Vung Tau, deployed to ensure the safety and protection of the Task Force area located at Nui Dat. Unfortunately, Private Errol Noack became the inaugural national serviceman and 1ATF member to lose his life due to enemy action.

On 18 August, The battle of Long Tan began with Delta Company, the 6th Battalion, and The Royal Australian Regiment against the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and the Viet Cong (VC). Alpha Company would relieve Delta Company, arriving onboard armoured personnel carriers (APCs) of 3 Troop, 1 APC Squadron. The NVA and VC left 245 bodies on the battlefield, while the Australians lost 17 infantrymen and a single APC crewman. Delta Company would receive the US Presidential Citation on 28 May 1968.

On 26 November, the Federal election was held. The primary point of contention was Australia's forced enlistment of young men to participate in the Vietnam War. Arthur Calwell, the opposition leader, was opposed to conscription and pledged to withdraw Australian troops from Vietnam if he were elected. Holt was resolute in increasing the number of soldiers and was supported by the US administration. Holt achieved a sweeping triumph with a considerable shift towards the Liberal-Country Party coalition government. More than six million individuals voted, the most significant turnout in Australia's history.

On 18 January, the controversy sparked when South Vietnamese Prime Minister, Nguyen Cao Ky, visited Australia amidst anti-war protests. The visit led to allegations of corruption and responsibility for the murder of his predecessor, President Ngo Dinh Diem.

Tasmania suffered its most deadly bushfires in February. The fires, which came to be known as the Black Tueday bushfires, killed 62 people and injured over 900 more. 1,293 housed and more than 1,700 other buildings were destroyed.

On the 1st of March, the Royal Australian Navy replaced the British White Ensign flag on all its ships with the Australian White Ensign, symbolising Australia's growing independence and identity.

On the 12th of April, Australian Roman Catholic bishops publicly declared their opposition to the Vietnam War. Secondly, on the 7th of April, Major Peter Badcoe, AATTV, was killed in action while leading two companies of Vietnamese regional forces. Badcoe was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. However, another Australian casualty grew the anti-war mentality at home.

On 26 May, a New Zealand rifle company - Victor Company of the 1st Battalion, The Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment (1 RNZIR), arrived at Nui Dat to serve with the 2nd Battalion, The Royal Australian Regiment (2RAR). The Joint Battalion was then re-designated 2RAR/NZ/ANZAC, symbolising the close relationship between the two nations built by the ANZAC campaigns of the World Wars.

On 27 May 1967, Indigenous Australians, previously excluded from the national census, were finally allowed to be counted after a national referendum and changes to citizenship laws.

On 1 July, The Postmaster-General's Department introduced postcodes to increase efficiency and replace the previous postal sorting methods. The introduction of postcodes coincided with the implementation of a new large-scale mechanical mail sorting system, starting with the Sydney GPO.

On 18 October, tragedy struck the Australian political scene as the year progressed. Prime Minister Harold Holt announced an increase of 1700 to Australia's commitment in South Vietnam, including a third infantry battalion and a tank squadron.

On 27 November, Johnny Farnham released Sadie (The Cleaning Lady). It would go on to become his first number one hit.

On 17 December, Holt went missing and was presumed drowned off Portsea in Victoria. Holt's sudden loss sent shockwaves throughout Australia, triggering a leadership crisis for the Coalition government. On 19 December, Country Party leader John McEwen was sworn in as interim Prime Minister. On 20 December, he announced he would not serve in a government led by Liberal Party deputy leader William McMahon, adding to the political turmoil.

In December 1967, the arrival of the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment at Nui Dat as part of 1 ATF's third battalion was a glimmer of hope amidst the chaos caused by the escalating war and the late Prime Minister's announcement of an increase in Australia's commitment in South Vietnam.

After Holt's disappearance, the Liberal Party of Australia organised a leadership contest to designate the subsequent Prime Minister. John Grey Gorton, a Victorian politician, emerged victorious on 10 January.

Gorton's appointment sparked controversy, with detractors asserting he lacked the requisite experience and leadership acumen to navigate Australia through the impending challenges. Undeterred, Gorton cemented his authority, implementing policies to address the nation's economic and social quandaries.

Members of English rock groups The Who and Small Faces are escorted by police from a plane at Melbourne's Essendon Airport, after the pilot diverts the flight citing the bands' behaviour.

The Tet Offensive, a significant event of 1968, transpired on 29 January. Communist forces in South Vietnam orchestrated a coordinated assault on every principal city and regional hub in the nation. This manoeuvre marked a watershed moment in the Vietnam War, instilling doubt in the minds of the Australian and American populace.

In February 1968, Prime Minister Gorton declared that Australia would not escalate its involvement in the Vietnam War. Opponents decried this stance, but Gorton remained steadfast, and his government pursued policies to diminish Australia's engagement in hostilities.

On 1 February, Tet enveloped Baria, the capital of Phuoc Tuy province (southeast of Ho Chi Minh City). Alpha Company of the 3rd Battalion, The Royal Australian Regiment (3RAR), and a troop of Armoured Personnel Carriers (APCs) engaged in a ferocious 24-hour skirmish to liberate the town. The brutal and intense combat between the Australian and Communist forces culminated in an Australian victory, albeit with significant losses.

From 12 May to 6 June, the Battle of Coral-Balmoral signified a crucial engagement during the Vietnam War. On the night of 12/13 May 1968, a North Vietnamese Regular Army regiment attacked FSB Coral. The force penetrated the defences, but resistance from the Australian and New Zealand troops consisting of infantry, armour, and artillery, pushed the North Vietnamese back. Over the coming weeks, the base was attacked repeatedly by large enemy forces. On 25 May, two enemy battalions attacked the newly established FSB Balmoral, only to be stopped by Australian infantry and tanks. The determined attacks continued until 6 June, when the NVA ceased its actions. Twenty-six Australians lost their lives in the battles, with enemy losses estimated at more than 300.

On 2 July 1968, fifty students were apprehended during an anti-Vietnam War demonstration in Martin Place, Sydney. This critical event denoted a turning point in public sentiment. Before this, the war had enjoyed substantial support.

As the war persisted and casualties accumulated, public opinion shifted against the conflict. Protests such as the one in Martin Place were instrumental in moulding public sentiment, ultimately contributing to the withdrawal of Australian troops from Vietnam.

On 4 July 1968, forty-five individuals were arrested outside the U.S. consulate on St Kilda Road, Melbourne, amid an anti-war demonstration. This momentous event showcased the Australian public's burgeoning opposition to the war. It illuminated the close relationship between Australia and the United States and the war's influence on that alliance.

On 31 October 1968, Phillip Lynch, the Minister for the Army, conceded that Australian Army soldiers may have contravened the Geneva Convention by employing water torture while interrogating a female Viet Cong suspect.

On 24 May 1969, WO2 Keith Payne, a company commander with a mobile strike force, earned the fourth Victoria Cross awarded to the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV).

03 June of 1969, tragedy struck again when the Royal Australian Navy aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne collided with the United States Navy destroyer USS Frank E. Evans in the South China Sea. The collision resulted in the sinking of USS Frank E. Evans and the loss of 74 crew members.

The Battle of Binh Ba was a significant military engagement during the Vietnam War on 6 June 1969. Australian forces were involved in the battle, called Operation Hammer, a large-scale operation to clear enemy forces from the village.

On the first day of the battle, Australian soldiers from the 5th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (5RAR), 1st Australian Task Force (1ATF) encountered strong resistance from North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and Viet Cong (VC) forces. After intense fighting, they managed to secure the village by the end of the day. The battle resulted in significant casualties for the NVA and VC forces, with estimates of approximately 100 killed and the Australians suffering one dead and ten wounded. The Australian soldiers were praised for their bravery and professionalism, and the battle was considered a significant success in the broader context of the war.

In June of 1969, the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Commission ruled that equal pay for women doing the same work as men must be phased in by 1972. This decision marked a significant milestone in the fight for gender equality in Australia.

On 20 July 1969, the world watched in awe as NASA successfully landed the first humans on the moon. The Apollo 11 mission captivated people around the globe, and Australia played a significant role in broadcasting the historical moment to the world. The main transmission feed was switched to Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station in Canberra and then to Parkes Observatory in New South Wales. In August of that year, the Morgan Gallup Poll found that 55% of Australians wanted their troops brought home from Vietnam. This reflected the growing anti-war sentiment in Australia and around the world.

On 3 September, Ho Chi Minh, the revolutionary leader who fought for Vietnam's independence, died in Hanoi at 79.

The following month, on 2 October, Australian tennis player Rod Laver achieved his second Grand Slam by winning the US Open.

On 16 December, following the plans by the US Government to withdraw another 50,000, the Australian Prime Minister, Sir John Gorton, advised that any further substantial reductions would include Australian forces. This marked a turning point in Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War and the beginning of the end of Australia's military involvement in the conflict.

13-15 January, US Vice-President Spiro Agnew visited Canberra. Agnew laid a wreath and the Australian War Memorial's Pool of Remembrance and met with the Federal Cabinet. His engagments thoughout the city were followed by protestors. Fourteen demonstrators were apprehended outside Parliament House during Agnew's solitary full day in Australia.

As part of the Vice-Presidential visit, Colonel Thomas Stafford, one of the Apollo 10 astronauts, presented Prime Minister Gortan with an Australian flag that was carried to the moon and back by Apollo 11, and a small sample of moon rocks.

On 15 January 1970, the Canberra constabulary scrutinised potentially hazardous chemicals thrown into the Prime Minister's Lodge swimming pool. While nobody sustained injuries, the occurrence heightened concerns about the Prime Minister's security and residence.

On 22 April 1970, the Prime Minister disclosed that the 8th Battalion, The Royal Australian Regiment (8 RAR), would receive replacements after the year's end. Some support components would be withdrawn from South Vietnam. However, around 120 soldiers would augment the AATTV's size. This verdict denoted a pivotal transition in Australia's Vietnam War participation, veering from an active combat position, employing Australian soldiers to bolster the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, towards Australia's initial military advising involvement.

On 3 May 1970, Queen Elizabeth II inaugurated a novel international terminal at Sydney Airport. Throughout the 1970s, the north-south runway extended to become one of the southern hemisphere's lengthiest runways, whilst the east-west runway remained 2,500m (8,300ft) long.

On 8 May, the first moratorium marches opposing the Vietnam War transpired in Australian metropolises. Approximately 120,000 marched across Australia. These processions initiated a new protest phase against the Vietnam War.

On 18 September 1970, an estimated 100,000 individuals participated in a subsequent moratorium march. The rally to contest Australia's engagement in the Vietnam War underscored the public's burgeoning opposition.

On 15 October 1970, the West Gate Bridge in Melbourne catastrophically collapsed during construction, resulting in the demise of 35 labourers and injuries to 18 others. The catastrophe instigated a substantial revamp of Australia's bridge-building regulations, yielding enhanced safety measures and more stringent construction standards.

In November Pope Paul VI becomes the first Pope to visit Australia.

As part of the pacification programme, 1ATF participated in Operation Cung Chung from June 1970 to February 1971. This operation comprised four phases, including intensive patrols and ambushes to deter enemy movement. Its primary objective was to curtail the Viet Cong's (VC) ability to operate within the region by denying them access to food supplies, taxes, and troop recruitment. Although the operation achieved its aims, the constant patrolling significantly taxed the troops.

On 30 March, Prime Minister McMahon swiftly announced additional reductions to Australian forces in South Vietnam. These significant cuts marked a shift in Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War and highlighted McMahon's determination to reduce the country's military presence in the region. This decisive move led to the withdrawal of various military components, including a tank squadron of about 650 men, a Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) Canberra bomber squadron with 280 personnel, and several Caribou transport aircraft accompanied by approximately 44 men.

On 30 June, approximately 110,000 people participated in anti-war demonstrations in state capitals throughout Australia, marking the third and final large-scale rally organised by the Vietnam Moratorium Campaigns. These campaigns emerged from a conference held in Canberra in November 1969 to plan a series of protests inspired by the American Moratorium model.

On 4 July, events such as the ball at Paddington Town Hall in Sydney, which promoted independence from American influence and involvement in the war, further contributed to the growing public opposition to Australia's engagement in the conflict.

The 1971 South Africa rugby union tour of Australia was a highly controversial six-week tour by the Springboks, which was met with widespread anti-apartheid protests throughout the country. The tour is perhaps most infamous for the state of emergency declared in Queensland. Despite the social unrest surrounding the tour, South Africa won the Test Series 3-0 against Australia.

On 18 August, Australian Prime Minister McMahon declared that most of Australia's combat forces in South Vietnam would be withdrawn by early the following year, with most troops returning home by Christmas. Despite the changes, Australia pledged to increase other forms of aid to South Vietnam, including spending $25 million on civil projects and defence aid, such as military training and equipment, over the next three years.

Following the resignation from the Senate of Annabelle Rankin, Neville Bonner became the first Indigenous Australian to sit as a member of the Australian Parliament.

On 6 October, soldiers of the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) marked the end of their eight-month tour in South Vietnam by helicopter flying onto the troop carrier HMAS Sydney. This significant event signalled the beginning of the withdrawal of Australian forces, as announced by Prime Minister McMahon earlier that year.

On 2 November, US President Richard Nixon gave Prime Minister McMahon an unqualified endorsement of the Anzus alliance, stating that the United States would honour its commitments under the coalition. He described the alliance as one of America's fundamental pillars in the Pacific.

In November, Australia and New Zealand announced the withdrawal of their troops from Vietnam, marking the end of their military involvement in the conflict. On 7 November 1971, the 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (4 RAR), moved from Nui Dat to Vung Tau, effectively ending Australian combat operations in Phuoc Tuy province. After almost six years of active duty in the Phuoc Tuy province, the central Australian unit handed over its base to Vietnamese forces, with the remaining troops focusing on defending their positions.

Sir William McMahon's tenure as Prime Minister of Australia was marked by significant changes in the country's involvement in the Vietnam War. As public opinion shifted and anti-war sentiment grew, McMahon made decisive moves to reduce Australia's military presence in Vietnam.

On 5 March 1972, the last Australian logistic units left Vung Tau, ending Australia's direct military involvement in the Vietnam War. From then on, Australia's commitment to South Vietnam returned to a training role with the 150-man Australian Army Assistance Group, Vietnam (AAAGV), and the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV).

Sir Douglas Ralph Nicholls was influential in the fight for equal rights for Indigenous Australians. He grew up at Cummeragunja Aboriginal mission and became a talented footballer, playing in the Victorian Football Association and later the Victorian Football League. He became an ordained pastor in 1945, dedicating his life to advocating for the rights of Indigenous Australians. In 1972, Australia celebrated a moment as Douglas Nicholls, a distinguished Indigenous rights activist, became the first Indigenous Australian to be knighted.

On 29 July 1972, Kerry Anne Wells became the first Australian to win the Miss Universe crown. Wells' victory represented a shift in the country's values, away from traditional British colonialism and towards a more diverse and inclusive culture.

On 15 November 1972, a significant event in Australia's aviation history occurred when Ansett Airlines Flight 232, bound for Alice Springs, was hijacked by a gunman. This marked the first aircraft hijacking in the country, leading to a dramatic gun battle at Alice Springs Airport and leaving four people injured.

On 2 December 1972, the Australian Labor Party, led by Gough Whitlam, defeated the Liberal/Country Coalition government led by Prime Minister William McMahon. Whitlam became Australia's first Labor Prime Minister since the defeat of Ben Chifley in 1949, ending 23 years of conservative rule in Australia.

On 5 December 1972, the Australian government ended conscription, and draft resisters were released from jail, with pending prosecutions for draft resistance being dropped. The same month, on 8 December 1972, Australia's military commitment to South Vietnam ended.

On 23 January 1973, US President Richard Nixon announced "peace with honour" in Vietnam, marking the end of America's involvement in the war. This signalled the end of a divisive period in American history and represented a significant moment in the global political landscape. The ceasefire on 27 January 1973 marked the war's official end, beginning a new era in Vietnam's political and social landscape.

In conclusion, 1972-73 marked a pivotal period in Australian history, witnessing significant political, social, and cultural changes that have shaped the nation's identity. The construction of the Aboriginal Tent Embassy in 1972 was a landmark event in the struggle for Indigenous rights and recognition. The end of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War brought about a new direction in foreign policy. The achievements of prominent Indigenous individuals, such as Douglas Nicholls, and the international recognition of Australian beauty queens helped to redefine the nation's cultural identity. The rise of the Australian Labor Party in 1972 marked the end of a long period of conservative rule, bringing about a significant shift in the country's political landscape. As we look back on this transformative era in Australian history, it is essential to remember the milestones that have paved the way for the diverse, inclusive, and progressive nation we know today.